Guidance, ideas and examples to support schools in developing their curriculum, pedagogy, enrichment and support for more able learners, within a whole-school context of cognitively challenging learning for all. Includes ideas to support curriculum development, and practical examples, resources and ideas to try in the classroom. Popular topics include: curriculum development, enrichment, independent learning, questioning, oracy, resilience, aspirations, assessment, feedback, metacognition, and critical thinking.
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Posted By Ems Lord,
11 February 2022
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Dr Ems Lord, Director of the University of Cambridge’s NRICH initiative, shares three activities to try in your classroom, to help learners improve their use of mathematical vocabulary.
Like many academic subjects, mathematics has developed its own language. Sometimes this can lead to humorous clashes when mathematicians meet the real world. After all, when we’re calculating the “mean”, we’re not usually referring to a measurement of perceived nastiness (unless it’s the person who devised the problem we’re trying to solve!).
Precision in our use of language within mathematics does matter, even among school-aged learners. In my experience, issues frequently arise in geometry sessions when working with pyramids and prisms, squares and rectangles, and cones and cylinders. You probably have your own examples too, both within geometry and the wider curriculum.
In this blog post, I’ll explore three tried-and-tested ways to improve the use of mathematical vocabulary in the classroom.
1. Introduce your class to Whisper Maths
“Prisms are for naughty people, and pyramids are for dead people.” Even though I’ve heard that playground “definition” of prisms and pyramids many times before, it never fails to make me smile. It’s clear that the meanings of both terms cause considerable confusion in KS2 and KS3 classrooms. Don’t forget, learners often encounter both prisms and pyramids at around the same time in their schooling, and the two words do look very similar.
One useful strategy I’ve found is using an approach I like to refer to as Whisper Maths; it’s an approach which allows individuals time to think about a problem before discussing it in pairs, and then with the wider group. For Whisper Maths sessions focusing on definitions, I tend to initially restrict learner access to resources, apart from a large sheet of shared paper on their desks; this allows them to sketch their ideas and their drawings can support their discussions with others.
This approach helps me to better understand their current thinking about “prismness” and “pyramidness” before moving on to address any misconceptions. Often, I’ve found that learners tend to base their arguments on their knowledge of square-based pyramids which they’ve encountered elsewhere in history lessons and on TV. A visit to a well-stocked 3D shapes cupboard will enable them to explore a wider range of examples of pyramids and support them to refine their initial definition.
I do enjoy it when they become more curious about pyramids, and begin to wonder how many sides a pyramid might have, because this conversation can then segue nicely into the wonderful world of cones!
2. Explore some family trees
Let’s move on to think about the “Is a square a rectangle?” debate. I’ve come across this question many times, and similarly worded ones too.
As someone who comes from a family which talks about “oblongs”, I only came across the “Is a square a rectangle?” debate when I became a teacher trainer. For me, using the term oblong meant that my understanding of what it means to be a square or an oblong was clear; at primary school I thought about oblongs as “stretched” squares. This early understanding made it fairly easy for me to see both squares and oblongs (or non-squares!) as both falling within the wider family of rectangles. Clearly this is not the case for everyone, so having a strategy to handle the confusion can be helpful.
Although getting out the 2D shape box can help here, I prefer to sketch the “family tree” of rectangles, squares and oblongs. As with all family trees, it can lead to some interesting questions when learners begin to populate it with other members of the family, such the relationship between rectangles and parallelograms.
3. Challenge the dictionary!
When my classes have arrived at a definition, it’s time to pull out the dictionaries and play “Class V dictionary”. To win points, class members need to match their key vocabulary to the wording in the dictionary. For the “squares and rectangles” debate, I might ask them to complete the sentence “A rectangle has...”. Suppose they write “four sides and four right angles”, we would remove any non-mathematical words, so it now reads “four sides, four right angles.” Then we compare their definition with the mathematics dictionary.
They win 10 points for each identical word or phrase, so “four right angles, four sides” would earn them 20 points. It’s great fun, and well worth trying out if you feel your classes might be using their mathematical language a little less imprecisely than you would like.
More free maths activities and resources from NRICH…
A collaborative initiative run by the Faculties of Mathematics and Education at the University of Cambridge, NRICH provides thousands of free online mathematics resources for ages 3 to 18, covering early years, primary, secondary and post-16 education – completely free and available to all.
The NRICH team regularly challenges learners to submit solutions to “live” problems, choosing a selection of submissions for publication. Get started with the current live problems for primary students, live problems for secondary students, and live problems for post-16 students.
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Posted By Jemma Sherwood,
11 February 2022
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Based on a post originally published on Jemma Sherwood’s website, The World Is Maths.
Back in 2017 (where does time go?) I wrote this post on the importance of vocabulary, where I argued for including subject-specific (what we tend to refer to as ‘tier 3’) vocab more in our lessons.
Since then I’ve obviously thought more about this and, following on from conversations with David Didau, I wanted to get down another observation.
In my experience, maths teachers can have a tendency to underestimate two things:
- The vocabulary our pupils can cope with.
- The effect of bypassing the correct vocab.
Let me elaborate.
The vocabulary our pupils can cope with
Our pupils are capable of learning lots of words. They learnt to speak as youngsters and acquired thousands of them, but we know that many of them don’t move past the basic or intermediate literacy skills to those they need to access more advanced material (Shanahan and Shanahan, 2008). Something happens to many students at secondary age whereby their language acquisition falters. If that is the case, then it falls to us to accept that we’re not teaching them this as well as we could. We must maintain the highest of expectations of all our pupils and part of that is building language acquisition into our lessons such that it is both integral and normal.
What do integral and normal look like? Integral means you value language acquisition as an essential part of your teaching, that you understand its necessity in an education. You seize every opportunity to teach new words, you make pupils practice them – saying them out loud, using them in sentences in context – and you carefully build this into what you do. Normal means language acquisition teaching isn’t an add-on and it’s not over-complicated. We don’t need fancy worksheets and analysis of etymology (although etymology is fascinating and all students should meet it). If we make the teaching of language (or anything, for that matter) too onerous or time-consuming it won’t happen properly. It must be a simple, everyday occurrence, as normal as anything else we do.
When the teaching of language is integral and normal you see that pupils are able to learn really rather complex and specific vocabulary very well and this, in turn, allows them to think more precisely and to communicate more clearly.
Returning to the paper referenced earlier, the authors spent some time talking to mathematicians, scientists and historians to determine what reading looked like in each discipline. There were specific elements of reading that were valued to a different extent by each. The mathematicians valued close reading and re-reading, specifically because reading in mathematics is linked to precision, accuracy and proof. I particularly like this quote:
Students often attempt to read mathematics texts for the gist or general idea, but this kind of text cannot be appropriately understood without close reading. Math reading requires a precision of meaning and each word must be understood specifically in service to that particular meaning.
If we want to take our students on a pathway to being mathematical, thinking like a mathematician, we should build in language acquisition and precision reading as a principle of this.
The effect of bypassing the correct vocab
Something I see very regularly in classrooms is teachers avoiding using correct vocab, I think (from conversations I’ve had) because they are worried that particular vocab will make it harder to understand a concept. This is best explained with an example:
Teacher: A factor is a number that goes into another number.
How many times have you said this? I know I have! I think it happens because of a perception that a “simplified” definition makes this word accessible to more pupils. However, I would argue that we are making the word specifically less accessible in doing this.
What does ‘goes into’ really mean? As a novice without a strong mathematical background I could interpret this in a number of ways. However, if my teacher tells me, “A factor is a number that divides another number with no remainder”, or similar, and accompanies this with examples and non-examples, I can make more sense of the word from the start. Moreover, if my teacher regularly refers to the word ‘factor’ alongside this definition, and asks my peers and me this definition, and gets us hearing it and rehearsing it, then I start to associate the word ‘division’ with ‘factor’ and I am less likely to confuse it with ‘multiple’. Eventually, it will become part of my fluent vocabulary.
In ‘dumbing down’ a definition, we work against understanding rather than for it. That doesn’t mean we have to go all-out Wolfram Mathworld* on our pupils, but it does mean we have to consider the implications of our own use of language and how we can make small changes that have a positive impact. It’s worth taking some time with your team to discuss where else we have a tendency to bypass proper vocabulary or definitions, and think about the specific negative effects this will have on our pupils. How can you, as a team, work towards increasing your pupils’ language acquisition and precision? What ideas or concepts do you want them to automatically associate a certain word with? Design your instruction towards that aim.
*“A factor is a portion of a quantity, usually an integer or polynomial that, when multiplied by other factors, gives the entire quantity.” Mathworld
Jemma Sherwood is a Senior Lead Practitioner for Maths, and the author of How to Enhance Your Maths Subject Knowledge: Number and Algebra for Secondary Teachers. Find out more about Jemma on her website, or follow her on Twitter.
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Posted By Keith Watson FCCT,
08 November 2021
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The opportunities that present themselves to teachers these days are truly amazing. Last summer the chance to write and deliver a Zoom-based programme of learning to primary-aged pupils in Beijing was presented to me. Yes, Beijing. How could I refuse the opportunity to apply an English teaching style to another culture? Through a partnership between NACE and a private educational provider I embarked upon a programme of 16 two-hour sessions over a period of eight weeks via Zoom, using Google Classroom for resources and homework. The lessons were taught from 7-9pm 9pm Beijing time. Would my teaching keep the nine-year olds awake on a Sunday night?
The context
The education company I worked with offers what it terms ‘gifted and talented programmes’ to all ages and across the curriculum. The pupils mainly attended international schools and had their school lessons taught in English. The programmes have previously been delivered in person during the summer holidays by overseas teachers, primarily from the US. A move to Zoom-based learning after the pandemic has proved successful and now lessons are offered throughout the year in the evening and at the weekend with parents paying highly for the courses. The company organised the programme very well with training and support for the teacher at every stage. It is an impressive operation.
I taught an English literature unit based upon a comparative novel study using ‘The Iron Man’ and ‘The Giant’s Necklace’ – texts familiar to many Key Stage 2 teachers. The pupils worked hard in lessons, listened well and thought deeply. They retained knowledge well and I used retrieval practice at the start of most lessons. They completed these tasks eagerly. They were a pleasure to teach. Off-task behaviour was rare, pupils laughed when jokes were made – though of course humour was lost in translation at times (or maybe my jokes were not funny).
What worked?
Central to the learning was the pupils reading aloud. They loved this. It gave me the chance to clarify meaning, check vocabulary and asks questions at depth. All pupils read, some with impressive fluency given it was their second language. Parents commented they were not used to working this way. I think in other courses they often read for homework and then in lessons answered questions at length and then wrote essays. Despite being young there is an emphasis on academic writing. One pupil referred to his story as an essay, revealing that writing a story was unusual for his studies. Writing the story was a highlight for the pupils, one I suspect they are not used to. The reading also allowed for targeted questions, which the parents seemed to like, having not seen the technique used before. Yes, parents often sat next to their child, out of my eyesight, to help if needed. Hearing them whisper what to say on occasion was a new one for me.
To get an idea of the dedication of the pupils and support of the parents, it is worth mentioning that one pupil joined the lesson while travelling home on a train from her holiday. With her mum sat next to her, she joined in the lesson as best she could and all with a smile on her face. Another pupil said her father had asked her how she was reviewing the learning from the previous lesson each week. Learning is valued. Technical difficulties were rare but when they arose the pupils were proactive in overcoming difficulties, moving rooms and logging on with another device. Resilience and self-regulation was noticeably high. The last lesson included a five-minute presentation from each pupil on what they had learned from the unit. Pupils prepared well, the standard was high and pupils showed depth of understanding of the themes covered.
Addressing the language gap
As a teacher the main challenge to emerge was the gap between the pupils’ understanding of complex literary concepts and the use of basic English. The units are aimed at what is termed ‘gifted and talented’ yet at times I needed to cover areas such as verb tenses at a basic level. In English assessment terms the students were at times working at Year 6 greater depth for reading and some aspects of their writing, but were only ‘working towards’ in other areas.
I have decades of experience teaching EAL learners, the majority of whom attained at or above national expectation at the end of Key Stage 2 despite early language challenges. Here the gap was even more pronounced. Should I focus on the higher-order thinking and ignore what was essentially a language issue? I decided not to do that since the students need to develop all aspects of their English to better express their ideas, including writing. I did mini-grammar lessons in context, worked primarily on verb tenses in their writing and when speaking, and prioritised Tier 2 vocabulary since Tier 3 specialist vocabulary was often strong. They knew what onomatopoeia was, but not what a plough was, let alone cultural references like a pasty. Why would they?
Motivations and barriers
At the start of each lesson, I welcomed each pupil personally and asked them, ‘What have you been doing today?’ Almost every answer referred to learning or classes. They had either completed other online lessons, swimming lessons, fencing lessons, piano practice (often two hours plus) or other planned activities. Rarely did a pupil say something like ‘I rode my bike’. Having a growth mindset was evident and the students understood this and displayed admirable resilience. Metacognition and self-regulation were also evident in learning.
However, one area where the pupil did struggle was in self-assessment. The US system is based on awarding marks and grades regularly, including for homework. I chose not to do this, thinking grades for homework would be somewhat arbitrarily awarded unless something like a 10-question model was used weekly. The research on feedback without grades suggests that it leads to greater pupil progress and this was my focus. It would be interesting to explore with the students whether my lack of grade awarding lowered their motivation because they were used to extrinsic rather than intrinsic motivation. Does this contradict my assertion that growth mindset was strong?
Another issue emerged linked to this – that of perfectionism. One pupil was keen to show her knowledge in lessons but was the only pupil who rarely submitted homework. A large part of the programme was to write a story based on ‘The Iron Man’, which this student did not seem to engage with. At the parents’ meeting the mother asked if she could write for her child if it was dictated, a suggestion I rejected saying the pupil needed to write so that I could provide feedback to improve. It became clear the child did not want to submit her work because it was ‘not as good as their reading’. The child had told me in the first lesson that they had been accelerated by a year at school. I fear problems are being stored up that my gentle challenges have only now begun to confront and that may take a long time to resolve. This was not the case for the other pupils, but the idea of pressure to work hard and succeed was always evident. I realise the word ‘pressure’ here is mine and may not be used by others in the same context, including the parents.
Parental support
So, what of parental engagement? The first session began with getting-to-know-each-other activities and a discussion on reading. After 20 minutes the TA messaged me to say the parent of one pupil felt the lesson was ‘too easy’. Nothing like live feedback! I messaged back that the aim at that point was to relax the children and build a teaching relationship. A few weeks later the same parent asked to speak to me at the end of the lesson. I was prepared for a challenge that did not materialise. She said her child liked the lessons and she loved the way I asked personalised questions to extend her child. She was not used to her being taught this way. I used a mixture of cold-calling, named lolly-sticks in a pot and targeted questions, which seemed novel and the children loved.
Parent meetings were held half-way through the unit and feedback about things like the questioning wasvery positive. The extremely upbeat response was surprising since the teaching seemed a little ‘flat’ to me given the limitations of Zoom but that is not how it was received. The pupils seemed to enjoy the variety of pace, the high level of personal attention, the range of tasks, the chunking of the learning and the sense of fun I tried to create. Parents asked when I was delivering a new course and wanted to know when I was teaching again.
Final reflections
So, what did I learn? Children are children the world over, which we all know deep down. But these children apply themselves totally to their work. They expect to work hard and enjoy ‘knowing’ things. Their days are filled with activity and learning. Zoom can work well but still the much-prized verbal feedback is not the same from 5,000 miles away.
And finally, as a teacher I have learned over the years to be professional and to keep teaching whatever happens. When a pupil said they didn’t finish their homework because they were traveling back home, I enquired where they had been. ‘Wuhan’ they replied. Without missing a beat, I further asked, ‘So what do you think about the plot in chapter two then?’
Would you be interested in sharing your experiences of teaching remotely and/or across cultures? Is this an area you’d like to explore or develop? Contact communications@nace.co.uk to share your experience or cpd@nace.co.uk to express your interest in being part of future projects like this.
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Posted By Hilary Lowe,
08 November 2021
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NACE Research and Development Director Hilary Lowe explores the relationship between language and learning, and the development of language-rich learning environments as a key factor in cognitively challenging learning experiences.
“We use language to define our world, while at the same time the social world in which we live defines our language. The structure of language and the variation we find within it depend both on the social world as well as the ways in which we create an identity for ourselves and the ways in which we build relations with others. Understanding how language both constrains our thoughts and actions and how we use language to overcome those constraints are important lessons for all educators.” (Silver & Lewin, 2013)
We are sometimes so busy talking in classrooms that we forget about the centrality of language for learning. It is for this reason that this blog post focuses on what is arguably a neglected area in the training of teachers: an understanding of the primacy of language in the learning process, of the link between language and higher-level cognition and high achievement, and the critical role of teachers in developing high-level language skills at all stages of schooling.
The development of language and literacy has long been a tenet of the National Curriculum as well as a significant area of research. Research such as that from Oxford Children’s Language (Oxford, 2018; 2020) has continued to emphasise the importance of linguistic wealth, and the link between paucity of language and academic failure and diminished life chances.
The notion of ‘oracy’ has been less visible in policy developments but has received more recent attention through, for example, the survey undertaken by the Centre for Education and Youth and Oxford University (2021) and the Oracy APPG Speak for Change Inquiry report (April, 2021). The APPG inquiry found that the development of spoken language skills requires purposeful and intentional teaching and learning throughout children’s schooling. It also found that there is a concerning variation in the time and attention afforded to oracy across schools, meaning that for many children the opportunity to develop these skills is left to chance. The inquiry concluded that there is an indisputable case for oracy as an integral aspect of education. The conclusions also emphasised the primordial place of oracy for young people and the critical role of employers, teachers and Ofsted in trying to ensure that these skills are developed to a high level.
In the first phase of NACE’s research initiative Making Space for Able Learners, which focuses on cognitive challenging learning, we were delighted to find examples of effective practices in language development and use, which led us to a renewed interest in the significance of language and discourse in high achievement. The schools in the project which demonstrated consistently excellent practice and high achievement for their most able learners had a systematic and systemic approach to the development and use of high-level language skills alongside wider literacy and oracy development (see below for examples). Some background: language, thinking and learning
The interaction between thought and language has long been the subject of research and academic debate. The thesis that natural language is involved in human thinking is universally well supported, although research into language and cognition often makes reference to ‘strong and weak theories’ of this thesis. Research suggests that higher-level language processes hold a pivotal role in higher-order executive and cognitive activities such as inference and comprehension, and indeed wider expressive communication skills.
Vygotsky (1978) writes that "[…] children solve practical tasks with the help of their speech, as well as their eyes and hands" (p. 26). In Vygotsky's view, speech is an extension of intelligence and thought, a way to interact with one's environment beyond physical limitations: “[…] the most significant moment in the course of intellectual development, which gives birth to the purely human forms of practical and abstract intelligence, occurs when speech and practical activity, two previously completely independent lines of development, converge.” (p. 24).
This higher level of development enables children to transcend the immediate, to test abstract actions before they are employed. This permits them to consider the consequences of actions before performing them. But most of all, language serves as a means of social interaction between people, allowing "the basis of a new and superior form of activity in children, distinguishing them from animals" (p. 28f). Vygotsky wrote, "human learning presupposes a specific social nature and a process by which children grow into the intellectual life of those around them" (p. 88). Language acts both as a vehicle for educational development and as an indispensable tool for understanding and knowledge acquisition.
In the classroom, therefore, we need to attend to the development of higher-level language processes as explicitly as we do to substantive subject skills and knowledge.
The functions of language in education
The various functions of language most pertinent in the classroom include:
- Expression: ability to formulate ideas orally and in writing in a meaningful and grammatically correct manner.
- Comprehension: ability to understand the meaning of words and ideas.
- Vocabulary: lexical knowledge.
- Naming: ability to name objects, people or events.
- Fluency: ability to produce fast and effective linguistic content.
- Discrimination: ability to recognize, distinguish and interpret language-related content.
- Repetition: ability to produce the same sounds one hears.
- Writing: ability to transform ideas into symbols, characters and images.
- Reading: ability to interpret symbols, characters and images and transform them into speech.
(Lecours, 1998).
All of these functions are key components in the teaching and learning process. Teachers and students use spoken and written language to communicate with each other formally and informally. Students use language to comprehend, to question and interrogate, to present tasks and learning acquired – to display knowledge and skills. Teachers use language to explain, illustrate and model, to assess and evaluate learning. Both use language to develop relationships, knowledge of others and of self. But language is not just a medium for communication – it is intricately bound up with the nature of knowledge and thought itself.
What does this mean for cognitively challenging learning?
For the development of high levels of cognition and to achieve highly, pupils need to develop the language associated with higher-order thinking skills in all areas of the curriculum, such as hypothesising, evaluating, inferring, generalising, predicting or classifying (Gibbons, 1991).
In an educational context it is through iterations of linguistic interactions between teacher and student – and peer to peer – that the process of advancing in learning and knowledge occurs. As Hodge (1993) notes, with limited time in the classroom, teachers often spend much of the available time conveying information rather than ensuring comprehension. This reduces the opportunities for a range of linguistic interactions and for learners to acquire and practise the higher-level language skills associated with high achievement. Planning and organising teaching and learning therefore needs to allow for an increase in opportunities for rich language environments and interactions alongside a cognitively challenging curriculum.
In the NACE research project school visits, we witnessed numerous incidences of highly effective and consistent practices in classroom discourse which clearly contributed to the achievement of highly able learners. These included:
- Teachers modelling advanced language and skilled explanation and questioning;
- Pupils being taught the language of skills such as reasoning, synthesis, evaluation;
- Frequent use of ‘dialogic’ frameworks and enquiry-based learning;
- The use of disciplinary discourse and higher tiers of language;
- Instructional models which include and prioritise the above.
Examples of effective, language-rich learning environments from the project include:
- Portswood Primary School: focus on the early development of vocabulary, language and talk. Teachers use sophisticated language to communicate expectations and learning.
- Alfreton Nursery School: teaching develops skills of concentration, as pupils focus on a central stimulus/object and formulate “big questions”. There is also an explicit focus on team working with reference to reasons “why we can agree to disagree” and the importance of listening. The teacher follows these pupil-led ideas in later sessions.
- Glyncoed Primary School: a challenging curriculum is achieved through planning and delivery of problem solving-based activities, extended and cognitively demanding tasks, and pupil choice. Teacher talk and high-level and qualitatively differentiated questioning, rich dialogue and cognitive talk is in evidence. Excellent modelling and explanations are also pervasive.
- Greenbank High School: pupils are stimulated by differentiated questions prompting them to test hypotheses, make predictions and transfer their knowledge to new contexts. As a result, pupils are working at a strong, sustained pace.
You can read more about the project and order copies of the report here.
Improving the quality and nature of linguistic interaction and discourse within the classroom can better equip learners to engage in cognitive challenge. Learners thus equipped can also move more effectively from guided practice to independence and self-regulation. Teachers working with more able pupils must have a clear pedagogical strategy in mind, with discourse and well-planned questioning an integral part of that strategy. By using a highly interactive pedagogical model, which is language-dependent, teachers get rapid feedback about how well knowledge schemas are forming and how fluent pupils have become in retrieving and using what they have learnt. Working with the most able learners, the quality of questioning and questioning routines must provide the teacher with diagnostic information and the pupils with increased challenge.
Creating language-rich schools and classrooms: implications for teacher development
The development of language is too important to be left to be ‘caught’ alongside the rest of the taught curriculum. We need to give it explicit attention across the curriculum, alongside subject knowledge and skills. To do this expertly teachers should have access to professional development opportunities which give them insights into substantive areas of language acquisition and development – including what that means at different ages and stages and for learners of different abilities and language experience.
NACE’s future CPD and resources will therefore focus on issues in and strategies for language development for high achievement, including:
- Case studies of NACE evidence schools with excellent practice in language for high achievement;
- The language needs and characteristics of different learners, including the most able;
- Creating language-rich school environments;
- Approaches to teaching and learning for language development;
- EAL learners;
- Developing a whole-school language policy.
Schools accredited with the NACE Challenge Award are invited to join our free termly Challenge Award Schools Network Group events (online) to share effective practice in this and other areas. View upcoming events here, or contact communications@nace.co.uk to learn more about NACE’s work in this field and/or to share your school’s experience.
References
- Oracy All-Party Parliamentary Group, Speak for Change, oracy.inparliament.uk, 2021
- Centre for Education and Youth with Oxford University Press, Oracy after the Pandemic, cfey.org, 2021
- Gibbons, P., Learning to Learn in a Second Language, Primary English Teaching Association, 1991
- Hillman, D. C. A., https://www.quahog.org/thesis/role.html, 1997
- Hodge, B., Teaching as Communication, Routledge, 1993
- Hodge, G. I. V. and Kress, G. R., Language as Ideology, Routledge, 1999
- Lecours, A. R. et al, Literacy and The Brain in The Alphabet and The Brain, Springer-Verlag, 1988
- Lowe, H. and McCarthy, A., Making Space for Able Learners, NACE, 2020
- Oxford Language Report, Why Closing the Language Gap Matters, OUP, 2018
- Oxford Language Report, Bridging the Word Gap at Transition, OUP, 2020
- Silver, R. E. and Lewin, S. M., Language in Education: Social Implications, Bloomsbury, 2013
- Vygotsky, L. S., Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes, London: Harvard University Press, 1978
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Posted By Christabel Shepherd,
10 December 2019
Updated: 10 December 2019
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Christabel Shepherd, Executive Headteacher of Bradford’s Copthorne and Holybrook Primary Schools, shares 10 tried-and-tested approaches to developing Tier 2 and 3 vocabulary.
"They just haven’t got the words!” This is something I have heard a number of times in my teaching career. As all teachers know, the consequence of children ‘not having the words’ means they are unlikely to be able to express themselves clearly. They may not be able to get the most from the experiences we offer. They are often judged by individuals beyond the school as lacking ability. They may display frustration and a lack of self-belief which, in turn, can lead to low levels of resilience and, in the case of many of the children I’ve taught, a tendency to be passive learners.
Above all, the vocabulary gap exacerbates social disadvantage. We have all seen the effects that result when children don’t have the words they need to truly express themselves, and to paint a true and vivid picture in the mind of a reader or listener. We also know that a focus on oracy and ‘closing the vocabulary gap’ opens the doors of opportunity for children and allows them to soar.
Challenge for all
At both the schools I lead, ‘challenge for all’ is a non-negotiable and at the heart of our ethos and vision. Both schools are members of NACE, and we believe that providing challenge for all our learners develops ability, raises aspirations, engenders resilience and is a key feature of a high-quality education.
Central to providing ‘challenge for all’ is a focus on high-quality language acquisition and use by pupils. How can we challenge learners effectively if there is a notable vocabulary gap, especially in terms of pupils’ knowledge, understanding and use of Tier 2 and 3 vocabulary? How can we embed higher order questioning and higher order thinking skills if the children can’t access the language?
Teaching Tier 2 and 3 vocabulary
I think most of us feel comfortable teaching Tier 3 vocabulary. It’s usually technical, often subject-specific, and we teach this in a very direct and focused way through a rich curriculum where key words and their meaning are explored and used in context.
Tier 2 vocabulary can be more difficult for children to grasp. It often expresses ‘shades of meaning’ which can be extremely subtle, and much of it relies on an experience and understanding of root words, prefixes and suffixes. As teachers, we are so used to experiencing these words or skilled at working out what they mean that we may assume they and their meaning are familiar to children too.
It is vital, therefore, if we want our children to engage effectively with the whole curriculum, articulate their thoughts, learning and aspirations, and access real challenge, that we have a whole-school focus on closing the vocabulary gap. We must directly teach and promote the understanding and use of Tier 2 and 3 vocabulary.
If you visit Copthorne Primary, where this approach is fully embedded, you will find wonderfully articulate young people. Our children are confident, active learners who relish a challenge and are not afraid to question adults, direct their own learning and express their views and opinions. Just being in their company for a few minutes makes my day.
Take a look at the Copthorne Pupil Parliament on YouTube (it’s just four minutes). Most of the children you’ll see arrived at the school with no English and are now able to think and speak fluently in at least two languages. Here’s how we do it…
1. Five-minute stories
Present children with three or four age/stage-appropriate Tier 2 words. The words must be those they have met before or have roots, prefixes or suffixes which they have experience of. Give them five minutes to write an engaging short story which must include the given words. This gives children the opportunity to use these words in their correct context, applying their developing knowledge of the shades of meaning, whilst developing long-term memory of the vocabulary. We adapted this idea from Chris Quigley who suggests using this strategy with words from year group spelling lists. Similarly, Tier 3 vocabulary can be developed by asking children to use a given selection of words in a summary about their learning in a particular subject.
2. Silent discussions
Get learners to discuss a topic through written communication only, using given Tier 2 or 3 vocabulary.
3. Model the language
When modelling writing, act out how to ‘think like a writer’, justifying and explaining your word choice, especially around synonyms from Tier 2. 4Talking school Provide opportunities and groupings for talk in every subject to ensure it absolutely pervades the whole curriculum. For example, try talk partners, debating, school council, drama or film-making. Use the ‘Big Questions’ resources at oxplore.org to promote debate and encourage the use of high-level vocabulary in context.
5. Language-rich environment
On every display, pose key questions using the appropriate technical vocabulary. This includes a ‘challenge’ question using Tier 2 vocabulary. Expect a response to the questions from the children. Display an appropriately aspirational (Tier 2) ‘word of the week’ in each classroom. After they’ve worked out its meaning, encourage the children to use it in their talk and writing and find its synonyms and antonyms.
6. Weekly vocabulary lessons
Take an object or theme and, using pictures, sound and film, support children in developing their high-quality descriptions using Tier 2 and 3 vocabulary, as well as more metaphorical language.
7. Reading across the curriculum
Maximise every opportunity in all subjects to teach reading skills and explore Tier 3 vocabulary in context. Use guided reading as an opportunity to really explore and pull apart those ‘shades of meaning’ for Tier 2 words in a range of text types. This allows for those rich conversations about specific word choice, meaning and effect.
8. Reciprocal reading
Introduce pupils to a whole-class text in small, manageable chunks. At the same time, thoroughly explore all new Tier 2 vocabulary. Encourage the children to use the words’ roots, context and any relevant existing knowledge to clarify meaning. Taking the time to explore misconceptions in reading and vocabulary use is a key feature of reciprocal reading and stops children from ‘glossing over’ words they don’t recognise.
9. Headteacher’s book club
Introduce extended guided reading groups for more able readers in Y5 and 6. Issue a challenging text to learners, along with an initial focus, and give pupils two to four weeks of independent reading time. Then meet together to share afternoon tea, discuss the book and explore new Tier 2 and 3 vocabulary. Encourage the children to use the new words in their writing and talk activities.
10. Year group writing events
Stage events such as an alien landing to stimulate pupils’ imagination and provide a specific context for the use of given Tier 2 and 3 words.
This article was originally published in Teach Reading & Writing magazine.
Christabel Shepherd is a NACE Associate and Trustee, and Executive Headteacher of Copthorne and Holybrook Primary Schools. She has extensive experience of leading on school-wide provision for more able learners, having used the NACE Challenge Framework to audit and develop provision in two schools, with both going on to achieve the NACE Challenge Award. Christabel regularly contributes to NACE's CPD programme, as well as delivering bespoke training and consultancy to help schools develop their provision for more able learners within an ethos of challenge for all.
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Posted By Gail Roberts,
05 September 2018
Updated: 22 December 2020
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Gail Roberts, More Able and Talented (MAT) Coordinator at Challenge Award-accredited Llanfoist Fawr Primary School, was selected as the winner of our “challenge pledge” competition at the NACE Cymru Conference 2018 for her commitment to developing learners’ oracy skills. In this blog post, she outlines seven strategies to put her pledge into practice…
For me, oracy skills are among the most important skills for any learner, including the more able – enabling them to communicate effectively in any subject or situation. As schools in Wales undergo significant changes, there is widespread agreement that transferable communication skills are essential to support all areas of learning, as well as improving employability and wellbeing.
With this in mind, oracy skills will be an ongoing focus for my Year 5 class throughout the coming year. In the autumn term, we’ll focus on discussion, building on learners’ existing oracy skills and making use of self- and peer-evaluation. In the spring, we’ll use debating to encourage learners to listen, think on their feet, react and build upon ideas. And in the summer term learners will take on the challenge of giving formal presentations to large audiences; based around the topic of parliament, they’ll visit secondary schools, governors and other primary schools to deliver a formal presentation on “The people's voice”.
Here are seven strategies to develop oracy skills with your own class this year:
1. Learn from the experts
Use a range of media to exhibit higher-order oracy skills. While learners are viewing a roleplay of older pupils or a video showing oracy skills in a real-life setting, discuss the skills being used and why they are effective.
2. Start from a familiar topic
Allow learners to choose a topic of conversation and give them time to think about key points. Once thoughts have been formulated, take their notes away. Give them time to discuss and practise sharing their ideas with peers. Starting from a topic with which learners are familiar will give them the confidence to develop skills which can then be transferred to a wide range of areas.
3. Practise a range of techniques
Challenge learners to present ideas convincingly using a range of techniques for impact. For example: rhetorical questions, appeals to listeners, gestures responding to how listeners are reacting, adapting what they say and how they say it. Ask those listening to identify information and ideas which align with or contradict their own opinions.
Learners should be able to express their opinions confidently, reasoning and supporting their own and others’ ideas with relevant evidence. When working in a group, they should be able to recognise a range of options and reach agreement to achieve the overall aims of the group.
4. Use peer evaluation
Peer evaluation is a fantastic tool if used effectively and modelled well. It can be used to increase learner engagement and understanding of learning criteria, and to develop evaluative and communication skills.
Set up one group of learners to complete a task such as a presentation, debate or focus group, and assign others as peer evaluators. After the activity is finished, the first group ask for feedback on their performance. I then encourage them to choose a few points from the peer feedback that they will include next time.
5. Celebrate successes
Once the skills have been taught, it is obviously imperative they are practised. Less obvious is the need for continual acknowledgement and congratulation. For example, throughout the day, ask learners to discuss ideas either formally or quickly informally. When good practice is spotted, it takes just seconds to point it out, but this will be remembered and used for life.
6. Extend…
Extend learners’ understanding of the use of standard and non-standard English, enabling them to confidently use language appropriately and fluently in formal and informal situations. Teach language using a wide range of syntax structures and precise and effective vocabulary, including specialised terminology. Through practice, learners should be able to make significant, well-thought-out contributions, engage listener interest and sustain a convincing point of view, anticipating and responding to other perspectives.
7. …and empower
Providing opportunities for learners to use their oracy skills in “real” settings can have a huge impact. When setting up such experiences, think widely and aim high. As well as presenting to audiences of governors, parents and peers, challenge learners to join debating groups, present to politicians, universities, business boardrooms… Let them see how powerful their voices can be.
One class I was working with were following the programme for the Prince William Award. I asked about opportunities for the children to talk about the project and what it meant to them. They ended up presenting to a headteachers’ conference, secondary schools, governors and to celebrities in the Tower of London at a formal dinner in a room next to the crown jewels.
Set the bar high, but ensure the experience is a positive one. Balance risk-taking with consolidating and acknowledging the skills they have gained. After an event, evaluate and set targets for improvement. Encourage learners to take charge of their own learning and performance. Their reward will come from their own confirmatory perception of the outcome.
Gail Roberts is the MAT Coordinator, Maths Coordinator and Year 5 teacher at Llanfoist Fawr Primary School in Monmouthshire. She has worked in education since 1980, starting out as an NNEB with children with severe difficulties in basic life skills, and gaining her NPQH in 2007. Describing herself as a “quiet” child who left school “a long way off my potential”, she is passionate about supporting all learners to achieve at the highest levels of which they are capable. Llanfoist Fawr gained the NACE Challenge Award in 2017, in recognition of school-wide commitment to high-quality provision for MAT learners within a context of challenge for all.
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Posted By Sarah Carpenter,
05 April 2018
Updated: 22 December 2020
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Are your primary maths lessons too quiet? Ahead of her upcoming workshop on strengthening talk in primary maths, NACE associate Sarah Carpenter explains why effective discussions are key to deepening and extending learning in this core subject.
Often there’s an assumption that primary mathematics is about numbers, concepts, operations – and not about language. But developing the language of maths and the ability to discuss mathematical problems is essential to help learners explore, reflect on and advance their understanding.
This is true for learners of all abilities. But for more able mathematicians in particular, regular opportunities to engage in talk about maths can hold the key to deeper, more secure understanding. Moving away from independent, paper-based work and the tunnel-vision race to the answer, discussion can be used to extend and deepen learning, refocus attention on the process, and develop important analytical, reflective and creative skills – all of which will help teachers to provide, and learners to be ready for, the next challenge.
If you’re still not sure why or how to use discussions effectively in your primary mathematics lessons, here are five reasons that will hopefully get you – and your learners – talking about maths…
1. Spoken language is an essential foundation for development.
This is recognised in the national curriculum: “The national curriculum for mathematics reflects the importance of spoken language in pupils’ development across the whole curriculum – cognitively, socially and linguistically. The quality and variety of language that pupils hear and speak are key factors in developing their mathematical vocabulary and presenting a mathematical justification, argument or proof.” – National curriculum in England, Department for Education, 2013
Or to put this another way, when else would we expect learners to write something if they cannot say it? As Anita Straker writes: “Sadly, children are frequently expected to write mathematics before they have learned to imagine and to discuss, and those who do not easily make connections are offered more pencil and paper work instead of vital talk and discussion. Yet in other subjects it would be unthinkable to ask children to write what they cannot say.” – Anita Straker, Talking Points in Mathematics, 1993
2. Practice is needed for fluency…
… and fluency is what the new SATs expect – not only in numbers and operations, but in the language of mathematics as well. For mathematical vocabulary to become embedded, learners need to hear it modelled and have opportunities to practise using it in context. More able learners are often particularly quick to spot links between mathematical vocabulary and words or uses encountered in other spheres – providing valuable opportunities for additional discussion which can help to embed the mathematical meaning alongside others.
Free resource: For assistance in introducing the right words at the right stage to support progress in primary maths, Rising Stars’ free Mathematical Vocabulary ebook provides checklists for Years 1 to 6, aligned with the national curriculum for mathematics.
3. Discussion deepens and extends mathematical thinking.
The work of researchers including Zoltan Dienes, Jerome Bruner, Richard Skemp and Lev Vygotsky highlights the importance of language and communication in enabling learners to deepen and extend their mathematical thinking and understanding. Beyond written exercises, learners need opportunities to collaborate, explain, challenge, justify and prove, and to create their own mathematical stories, theories, problems and questions. Teachers can support this by modelling the language of discussion (“I challenge/support your idea because…”); using questioning to extend thinking; stimulating discussion using visual aids; and building in regular opportunities for paired, group and class discussions.
4. Talk supports effective assessment for learning.
More able learners often struggle to articulate their methods and reasoning, often replying “I did it in my head” or “I just knew”. This makes it difficult for teachers to accurately assess the true depth of their understanding. Focusing on developing the skills and language to discuss and explain mathematical processes helps teachers gain a clearer picture of each learner’s current understanding, and provide appropriate support and challenge. This will be an ongoing process, but a good place to start is with a “prior learning discussion” at the beginning of each new maths topic, allowing learners to discuss what they already know (or think they know) and what they want to find out.
5. Discussion helps higher attainers refocus on the process.
More able mathematicians often romp through learning tasks, focusing on reaching the answer as quickly as possible. Discussion can help them to slow down and refocus on the process, reflecting on their existing knowledge and understanding, taking on others’ ideas, and strengthening their conceptual understanding. This slowing down can be further encouraged by starting with the answer rather than the question; asking learners to devise their own questions; pairing learners to work collaboratively; using concept cartoons to prompt discussion of common misconceptions; and moving away from awarding marks only for the final solution.
During her 20-year career in education, Sarah has taken on a variety of roles in the early years and primary sectors, including classroom teaching, deputy headship and local authority positions. After a period as literacy and maths consultant for an international company, she returned to West Berkshire local authority, where she is currently school improvement adviser for primary maths and English. As a NACE associate, Sarah supports schools developing their provision for more able learners, leading specialised seminars, training days and bespoke CPD.
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Posted By Christine Chen and Lindsay Pickton ,
18 January 2018
Updated: 22 December 2020
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NACE associates Christine Chen and Lindsay Pickton are experienced primary English advisors, with a specialisation in supporting more able learners. In this blog post, they explain how grammar games can help to foster creativity, engagement with the composition process, and a lasting love of language.
If you’re not already using grammar games in your classroom, here are five reasons to start now…
1. They set a high bar for all learners
The great thing about grammar games is that they enable a “low threshold, high ceiling” approach to learning, enabling all learners to experience the possibilities of language manipulation. While some games offer potential forms of differentiation, the key – as with any learning – is having high expectations of all.
2. They’re fun!
There’s a common misconception that grammar is intrinsically boring and dry. Grammar games help to break this down, providing opportunities for teachers and learners alike to have fun with grammar, through activities including dice games, physical manipulation of sentence structures and simple drama strategies.
3. They put grammar in context
Grammar teaching and learning is commonly approached through isolated exercises, which may help some children with test preparation, but do little to support composition. Grammar games can be used to explore grammar in the wider context of language usage, making it more likely that learners will apply new learning and continue to experiment.
4. They encourage risk-taking
Collaborative grammar play transforms what could be a purely internal process into an enjoyable shared learning experience. When children experiment with application in writing following these collaborative games, they are more likely to take risks and to feel in control, in a joyful way.
5. They nurture a love of language
Playing with language fosters a love of it. This is important for all learners, including more able writers and communicators. Even if they don’t know the terminology, these learners are able to adapt sentence structures and vocabulary choices to achieve a desired impact on their readership. Grammar games further encourage them to take pleasure in exploring and developing their skills as young writers.
One to try: “Every word counts”
This is a dice game for manipulating meaning and exploring nuance through vocabulary choices. It’s one of the most popular and adaptable games we’ve invented; as children play, they experience tangibly the descriptive power of every word in a sentence.
Create a six-word sentence, in which no word class is repeated, and list the word classes in order.
e.g. They played in their tiny garden.
- Pronoun
- Verb
- Preposition
- Determiner
- Adjective
- Noun
Throw a dice. With each throw, children must change the corresponding word in the sentence, and discuss (as a group or whole class) what has changed about the scene or story.
e.g. Throw a 4 – change the determiner:
- They played in their tiny garden.
- They played in her tiny garden.
- They played in the tiny garden.
- They played in this tiny garden.
Learners discuss how changes made affect the meaning. With each change, how does the word choice affect the story?
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Posted By Anna Wynd,
19 April 2017
Updated: 22 December 2020
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Anna Wynd, head of modern foreign languages at North Oxfordshire Academy (NOA), explains how the school approaches language learning through a “menu of challenge”.
In our approach to modern foreign language teaching and learning at North Oxfordshire Academy, we strive to nurture and encourage our pupils’ enthusiasm and curiosity, offering a varied menu of challenge.
Interactive games such as the “horse race” allow pupils to work in differentiated teams to solve tasks that will move their horse closer to the finish line, while allowing opportunities for self- and peer-assessment. Our KS3 homework involves a variety of interests, skills and pupil choice at different levels, such as recipes in the target language.
Preparing for the unexpected
The current MFL Programme of Study details the importance of pupils having the opportunity to read literary texts in the language (such as stories, songs, poems and letters) to stimulate ideas, develop creative expression and expand understanding of the language and culture.
NOA’s MFL library, which includes books, DVDs and magazines, allows the MFL department to continue to support the Academy’s drive on literacy by encouraging reading for pleasure in the target language and an exploration of intercultural understanding.
In addition, the films act as an effective and enjoyable way of developing pupils’ listening skills, particularly in training them to deal with “the unexpected element” of languages – a skill required for outstanding achievement according to Ofsted. Furthermore, the longer texts have been challenging yet purposeful, and act as a great stretch for our most able language learners.
A varied menu of challenge
We also include the following in our menu of challenge for language teaching and learning:
- A bank of authentic resources which are planned into schemes of work (maps, brochures, receipts, magazines).
- A whole-school approach to Assessment for Learning (AfL): “Find the gap, teach the gap.” Every student has a knowledge organiser for every subject, and uses them to revise the vocabulary and grammar that is studied in each lesson for the memory platform test. Every lesson begins with a memory platform that assesses prior learning. Pupils then self-assess in green pen. The main aim for this is to improve memory recall.
- Using sixth-form students to support Year 11 in small study groups to go through exam skills. The Year 11 cohort enjoy hearing from a peer about how they dealt with the exam, revision and stress.
- French Club, attended by able language learners in Year 8. Activities include board games in the target language; discussion of festivals and traditions in more detail, and comparison with the UK or with the home country of the students who attend; pupil-created quizzes either on cultural facts or what they’re currently learning; listening to French songs and talking about art and artists.
This case study was originally published in the Spring 2017 edition of NACE’s Insight newsletter. To view past editions, log in as a member.
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